SQL Queries and Subqueries（10gR2）

Before start reading this article, you need to pay attention to the words in red.

• About Queries and Subqueries

• Creating Simple Queries

• Hierarchical Queries

• The UNION [ALL], INTERSECT, MINUS Operators

• Sorting Query Results

• Joins

• Using Subqueries

• Unnesting of Nested Subqueries

• Selecting from the DUAL Table

• Distributed Queries

About Queries and Subqueries

A query is an operation that retrieves data from one or more tables or views. In this reference, a top-level SELECT statement is called a query, and a query nested within another SQL statement is called a subquery.

（这一段没什么太大用，主要定义什么是queries 什么是 subqueries）

Creating Simple Queries

The list of expressions that appears after the SELECT keyword and before the FROM clause is called the select list. Within the select list, you specify one or more columns in the set of rows you want Oracle Database to return from one or more tables, views, or materialized views. The number of columns, as well as their datatype and length, are determined by the elements of the select list.

If two or more tables have some column names in common, then you must qualify column names with names of tables. Otherwise, fully qualified column names are optional. However, it is always a good idea to qualify table and column references explicitly. Oracle often does less work with fully qualified table and column names.（fully qualified 表 和 列名可以减少oracle的工作量？ 为什么会减少呢？ 减少的多吗？ 是不是说以后写SQL最好把列名表名的前缀都加上 这样可以提高性能？）

You can use a column alias, c_alias, to label the immediately preceding expression in the select list so that the column is displayed with a new heading. The alias effectively renames the select list item for the duration of the query. The alias can be used in the ORDER BY clause, but not other clauses in the query.

You can use comments in a SELECT statement to pass instructions, or hints, to the Oracle Database optimizer. The optimizer uses hints to choose an execution plan for the statement. Please refer to "Using Hints" and Oracle Database Performance Tuning Guide for more information on hints.

Hierarchical Queries

（这一章要仔细读）

If a table contains hierarchical data, then you can select rows in a hierarchical order using the hierarchical query clause:

hierarchical_query_clause::=

Description of the illustration hierarchical_query_clause.gif

START WITH specifies the root row(s) of the hierarchy.

CONNECT BY specifies the relationship between parent rows and child rows of the hierarchy.

• The NOCYCLE parameter instructs Oracle Database to return rows from a query even if a CONNECT BY LOOP exists in the data. Use this parameter along with the CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE pseudocolumn to see which rows contain the loop. Please refer to CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE Pseudocolumn for more information.

• In a hierarchical query, one expression in condition must be qualified with the PRIOR operator to refer to the parent row. For example,

  ... PRIOR expr = expr
  or
  ... expr = PRIOR expr
  
  

  If the CONNECT BY condition is compound, then only one condition requires the PRIOR operator, although you can have multiple PRIOR conditions. For example:

  CONNECT BY last_name != 'King' AND PRIOR employee_id = manager_id ...
  CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id and 
             PRIOR account_mgr_id = customer_id ...
  
  

  PRIOR is a unary operator and has the same precedence as the unary + and - arithmetic operators. It evaluates the immediately following expression for the parent row of the current row in a hierarchical query.

  PRIOR is most commonly used when comparing column values with the equality operator. (The PRIOR keyword can be on either side of the operator.) PRIOR causes Oracle to use the value of the parent row in the column. Operators other than the equal sign (=) are theoretically possible in CONNECT BY clauses. However, the conditions created by these other operators can result in an infinite loop through the possible combinations. In this case Oracle detects the loop at run time and returns an error.

Both the CONNECT BY condition and the PRIOR expression can take the form of an uncorrelated subquery. However, the PRIOR expression cannot refer to a sequence. That is, CURRVAL and NEXTVAL are not valid PRIOR expressions.

You can further refine a hierarchical query by using the CONNECT_BY_ROOT operator to qualify a column in the select list. This operator extends the functionality of the CONNECT BY [PRIOR] condition of hierarchical queries by returning not only the immediate parent row but all ancestor rows in the hierarchy.

See Also:

CONNECT_BY_ROOT for more information about this operator and "Hierarchical Query Examples"

Oracle processes hierarchical queries as follows:

• A join, if present, is evaluated first, whether the join is specified in the FROM clause or with WHERE clause predicates.

• The CONNECT BY condition is evaluated.

• Any remaining WHERE clause predicates are evaluated.

Oracle then uses the information from these evaluations to form the hierarchy using the following steps:

1. Oracle selects the root row(s) of the hierarchy--those rows that satisfy the START WITH condition.

2. Oracle selects the child rows of each root row. Each child row must satisfy the condition of the CONNECT BY condition with respect to one of the root rows.

3. Oracle selects successive generations of child rows. Oracle first selects the children of the rows returned in step 2, and then the children of those children, and so on. Oracle always selects children by evaluating the CONNECT BY condition with respect to a current parent row.

4. If the query contains a WHERE clause without a join, then Oracle eliminates all rows from the hierarchy that do not satisfy the condition of the WHERE clause. Oracle evaluates this condition for each row individually, rather than removing all the children of a row that does not satisfy the condition.

5. Oracle returns the rows in the order shown in Figure 9-1. In the diagram, children appear below their parents. For an explanation of hierarchical trees, see Figure 3-1, "Hierarchical Tree".

Figure 9-1 Hierarchical Queries

Description of "Figure 9-1 Hierarchical Queries"

To find the children of a parent row, Oracle evaluates the PRIOR expression of the CONNECT BY condition for the parent row and the other expression for each row in the table. Rows for which the condition is true are the children of the parent. The CONNECT BY condition can contain other conditions to further filter the rows selected by the query. The CONNECT BY condition cannot contain a subquery.

If the CONNECT BY condition results in a loop in the hierarchy, then Oracle returns an error. A loop occurs if one row is both the parent (or grandparent or direct ancestor) and a child (or a grandchild or a direct descendent) of another row.

Note:

In a hierarchical query, do not specify either ORDER BY or GROUP BY, as they will destroy the hierarchical order of the CONNECT BY results. If you want to order rows of siblings of the same parent, then use the ORDER SIBLINGS BY clause. See order_by_clause .

Hierarchical Query Examples

CONNECT BY Example The following hierarchical query uses the CONNECT BY clause to define the relationship between employees and managers:

SELECT employee_id, last_name, manager_id
   FROM employees
   CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id;

EMPLOYEE_ID LAST_NAME                 MANAGER_ID
----------- ------------------------- ----------
        101 Kochhar                          100
        108 Greenberg                        101
        109 Faviet                           108
        110 Chen                             108
        111 Sciarra                          108
        112 Urman                            108
        113 Popp                             108
        200 Whalen                           101
...

LEVEL Example The next example is similar to the preceding example, but uses the LEVEL pseudocolumn to show parent and child rows:

SELECT employee_id, last_name, manager_id, LEVEL
   FROM employees
   CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id;

EMPLOYEE_ID LAST_NAME                 MANAGER_ID      LEVEL
----------- ------------------------- ---------- ----------
        101 Kochhar                          100          1
        108 Greenberg                        101          2
        109 Faviet                           108          3
        110 Chen                             108          3
        111 Sciarra                          108          3
        112 Urman                            108          3
        113 Popp                             108          3
...

START WITH Examples The next example adds a START WITH clause to specify a root row for the hierarchy and an ORDER BY clause using the SIBLINGS keyword to preserve ordering within the hierarchy:

SELECT last_name, employee_id, manager_id, LEVEL
      FROM employees
      START WITH employee_id = 100
      CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id
      ORDER SIBLINGS BY last_name;

LAST_NAME                 EMPLOYEE_ID MANAGER_ID      LEVEL
------------------------- ----------- ---------- ----------
King                              100                     1
Cambrault                         148        100          2
Bates                             172        148          3
Bloom                             169        148          3
Fox                               170        148          3
Kumar                             173        148          3
Ozer                              168        148          3
Smith                             171        148          3
De Haan                           102        100          2
Hunold                            103        102          3
Austin                            105        103          4
Ernst                             104        103          4
Lorentz                           107        103          4
Pataballa                         106        103          4
Errazuriz                         147        100          2
Ande                              166        147          3
Banda                             167        147          3
...

In the hr.employees table, the employee Steven King is the head of the company and has no manager. Among his employees is John Russell, who is the manager of department 80. If we update the employees table to set Russell as King's manager, we will create a loop in the data:

UPDATE employees SET manager_id = 145
   WHERE employee_id = 100;

SELECT last_name "Employee", 
   LEVEL, SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(last_name, '/') "Path"
   FROM employees
   WHERE level <= 3 AND department_id = 80
   START WITH last_name = 'King'
   CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id AND LEVEL <= 4;
  2    3    4    5    6    7  ERROR:
ORA-01436: CONNECT BY loop in user data

The NOCYCLE parameter in the CONNECT BY condition causes Oracle to return the rows in spite of the loop. The CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE pseudocolumn shows you which rows contain the cycle:

SELECT last_name "Employee", CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE "Cycle",
   LEVEL, SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(last_name, '/') "Path"
   FROM employees
   WHERE level <= 3 AND department_id = 80
   START WITH last_name = 'King'
   CONNECT BY NOCYCLE PRIOR employee_id = manager_id AND LEVEL <= 4;

Employee                   Cycle  LEVEL Path
------------------------- ------ ------ -------------------------
Russell                        1      2 /King/Russell
Tucker                         0      3 /King/Russell/Tucker
Bernstein                      0      3 /King/Russell/Bernstein
Hall                           0      3 /King/Russell/Hall
Olsen                          0      3 /King/Russell/Olsen
Cambrault                      0      3 /King/Russell/Cambrault
Tuvault                        0      3 /King/Russell/Tuvault
Partners                       0      2 /King/Partners
King                           0      3 /King/Partners/King
Sully                          0      3 /King/Partners/Sully
McEwen                         0      3 /King/Partners/McEwen
...

CONNECT_BY_ROOT Examples The following example returns the last name of each employee in department 110, each manager above that employee in the hierarchy, the number of levels between manager and employee, and the path between the two:

SELECT last_name "Employee", CONNECT_BY_ROOT last_name "Manager",
   LEVEL-1 "Pathlen", SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(last_name, '/') "Path"
   FROM employees
   WHERE LEVEL > 1 and department_id = 110
   CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id;

Employee        Manager         Pathlen Path
--------------- ------------ ---------- -----------------------------------
Higgins         Kochhar               1 /Kochhar/Higgins
Gietz           Kochhar               2 /Kochhar/Higgins/Gietz
Gietz           Higgins               1 /Higgins/Gietz
Higgins         King                  2 /King/Kochhar/Higgins
Gietz           King                  3 /King/Kochhar/Higgins/Gietz

The following example uses a GROUP BY clause to return the total salary of each employee in department 110 and all employees below that employee in the hierarchy:

SELECT name, SUM(salary) "Total_Salary" FROM (
   SELECT CONNECT_BY_ROOT last_name as name, Salary
      FROM employees
      WHERE department_id = 110
      CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id)
      GROUP BY name;

NAME                      Total_Salary
------------------------- ------------
Gietz                             8300
Higgins                          20300
King                             20300
Kochhar                          20300

See Also:

• LEVEL Pseudocolumn and CONNECT_BY_ISCYCLE Pseudocolumn for a discussion of how these pseudocolumns operate in a hierarchical query

• SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH for information on retrieving the path of column values from root to node

• order_by_clause for more information on the SIBLINGS keyword of ORDER BY clauses

The UNION [ALL], INTERSECT, MINUS Operators

You can combine multiple queries using the set operators UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT, and MINUS. All set operators have equal precedence. If a SQL statement contains multiple set operators, then Oracle Database evaluates them from the left to right unless parentheses explicitly specify another order.

The corresponding expressions in the select lists of the component queries of a compound query must match in number and must be in the same datatype group (such as numeric or character).

If component queries select character data, then the datatype of the return values are determined as follows:

• If both queries select values of datatype CHAR of equal length, then the returned values have datatype CHAR of that length. If the queries select values of CHAR with different lengths, then the returned value is VARCHAR2 with the length of the larger CHAR value.

• If either or both of the queries select values of datatype VARCHAR2, then the returned values have datatype VARCHAR2.

If component queries select numeric data, then the datatype of the return values is determined by numeric precedence:

• If any query selects values of type BINARY_DOUBLE, then the returned values have datatype BINARY_DOUBLE.

• If no query selects values of type BINARY_DOUBLE but any query selects values of type BINARY_FLOAT, then the returned values have datatype BINARY_FLOAT.

• If all queries select values of type NUMBER, then the returned values have datatype NUMBER.

In queries using set operators, Oracle does not perform implicit conversion across datatype groups. Therefore, if the corresponding expressions of component queries resolve to both character data and numeric data, Oracle returns an error.

See Also:

Table 2-10, "Implicit Type Conversion Matrix" for more information on implicit conversion and "Numeric Precedence" for information on numeric precedence

Examples The following query is valid:

SELECT 3 FROM DUAL
   INTERSECT
SELECT 3f FROM DUAL;

This is implicitly converted to the following compound query:

SELECT TO_BINARY_FLOAT(3) FROM DUAL
   INTERSECT
SELECT 3f FROM DUAL;

The following query returns an error:

SELECT '3' FROM DUAL
   INTERSECT
SELECT 3f FROM DUAL;

Restrictions on the Set Operators The set operators are subject to the following restrictions:

• The set operators are not valid on columns of type BLOB, CLOB, BFILE, VARRAY, or nested table.

• The UNION, INTERSECT, and MINUS operators are not valid on LONG columns.

• If the select list preceding the set operator contains an expression, then you must provide a column alias for the expression in order to refer to it in the order_by_clause.

• You cannot also specify the for_update_clause with the set operators.

• You cannot specify the order_by_clause in the subquery of these operators.

• You cannot use these operators in SELECT statements containing TABLE collection expressions.

Note:

To comply with emerging SQL standards, a future release of Oracle will give the INTERSECT operator greater precedence than the other set operators. Therefore, you should use parentheses to specify order of evaluation in queries that use the INTERSECT operator with other set operators.（这一段就这里还真应该注意一下， 现在oracle的intersect 和 union 等的优先级是一样的，但是标准SQL中不一样 所以要注意以后使用的时候优先级是不是有问题）

UNION Example The following statement combines the results of two queries with the UNION operator, which eliminates duplicate selected rows. This statement shows that you must match datatype (using the TO_CHAR function) when columns do not exist in one or the other table:

SELECT location_id, department_name "Department", 
   TO_CHAR(NULL) "Warehouse"  FROM departments
   UNION
   SELECT location_id, TO_CHAR(NULL) "Department", warehouse_name 
   FROM warehouses;

LOCATION_ID Department            Warehouse
----------- --------------------- --------------------------
       1400 IT
       1400                       Southlake, Texas
       1500 Shipping
       1500                       San Francisco
       1600                       New Jersey
       1700 Accounting
       1700 Administration
       1700 Benefits
       1700 Construction
...

UNION ALL Example The UNION operator returns only distinct rows that appear in either result, while the UNION ALL operator returns all rows. The UNION ALL operator does not eliminate duplicate selected rows:

SELECT product_id FROM order_items
UNION
SELECT product_id FROM inventories;

SELECT location_id  FROM locations 
UNION ALL 
SELECT location_id  FROM departments;

A location_id value that appears multiple times in either or both queries (such as '1700') is returned only once by the UNION operator, but multiple times by the UNION ALL operator.

INTERSECT Example The following statement combines the results with the INTERSECT operator, which returns only those rows returned by both queries:

SELECT product_id FROM inventories
INTERSECT
SELECT product_id FROM order_items;

MINUS Example The following statement combines results with the MINUS operator, which returns only unique rows returned by the first query but not by the second:

SELECT product_id FROM inventories
MINUS
SELECT product_id FROM order_items;

Sorting Query Results

Use the ORDER BY clause to order the rows selected by a query. Sorting by position is useful in the following cases:

• To order by a lengthy select list expression, you can specify its position in the ORDER BY clause rather than duplicate the entire expression.

• For compound queries containing set operators UNION, INTERSECT, MINUS, or UNION ALL, the ORDER BY clause must specify positions or aliases rather than explicit expressions. Also, the ORDER BY clause can appear only in the last component query. The ORDER BY clause orders all rows returned by the entire compound query.

The mechanism by which Oracle Database sorts values for the ORDER BY clause is specified either explicitly by the NLS_SORT initialization parameter or implicitly by the NLS_LANGUAGE initialization parameter. You can change the sort mechanism dynamically from one linguistic sort sequence to another using the ALTER SESSION statement. You can also specify a specific sort sequence for a single query by using the NLSSORT function with the NLS_SORT parameter in the ORDER BY clause.

Joins

A join is a query that combines rows from two or more tables, views, or materialized views. （当view join的时候。到底是先生成view的 row source再join呢 还是直接用表去join 然后再应用view的过滤条件）Oracle Database performs a join whenever multiple tables appear in the FROM clause of the query. The select list of the query can select any columns from any of these tables. If any two of these tables have a column name in common, then you must qualify all references to these columns throughout the query with table names to avoid ambiguity.

Join Conditions

Most join queries contain at least one join condition, either in the FROM clause or in the WHERE clause. The join condition compares two columns, each from a different table. To execute a join, Oracle Database combines pairs of rows, each containing one row from each table, for which the join condition evaluates to TRUE. The columns in the join conditions need not also appear in the select list.

To execute a join of three or more tables, Oracle first joins two of the tables based on the join conditions comparing their columns and then joins the result to another table based on join conditions containing columns of the joined tables and the new table. Oracle continues this process until all tables are joined into the result. The optimizer determines the order in which Oracle joins tables based on the join conditions, indexes on the tables, and, any available statistics for the tables.

IA WHERE clause that contains a join condition can also contain other conditions that refer to columns of only one table. These conditions can further restrict the rows returned by the join query. (这里很重要，因为这里说的是further restrict。 也就是说通常是先join再去restrict。那么如果想办法先restrict再join是不是开销会小些呢？ 可以通过view join来测试。 )

Note:

You cannot specify LOB columns in the WHERE clause if the WHERE clause contains the join condition. The use of LOBs in WHERE clauses is also subject to other restrictions. See Oracle Database Application Developer's Guide - Large Objects for more information.

Equijoins

An equijoin is a join with a join condition containing an equality operator. An equijoin combines rows that have equivalent values for the specified columns. Depending on the internal algorithm the optimizer chooses to execute the join, the total size of the columns in the equijoin condition in a single table may be limited to the size of a data block minus some overhead. （难道这句话的意思是说，如果某一列想使用equijoin这种join方式，那么用到join的column 不能超过数据块的容量）The size of a data block is specified by the initialization parameter DB_BLOCK_SIZE.

See Also:

"Using Join Queries: Examples"

A self join is a join of a table to itself. This table appears twice in the FROM clause and is followed by table aliases that qualify column names in the join condition. To perform a self join, Oracle Database combines and returns rows of the table that satisfy the join condition.

See Also:

"Using Self Joins: Example"

Cartesian Products

If two tables in a join query have no join condition, then Oracle Database returns their Cartesian product. Oracle combines each row of one table with each row of the other. A Cartesian product always generates many rows and is rarely useful. For example, the Cartesian product of two tables, each with 100 rows, has 10,000 rows. Always include a join condition unless you specifically need a Cartesian product. If a query joins three or more tables and you do not specify a join condition for a specific pair, then the optimizer may choose a join order that avoids producing an intermediate Cartesian product.

Inner Joins

An inner join (sometimes called a simple join) is a join of two or more tables that returns only those rows that satisfy the join condition.

Outer Joins

An outer join extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all rows that satisfy the join condition and also returns some or all of those rows from one table for which no rows from the other satisfy the join condition.

• To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all rows from A (a left outer join), use the LEFT [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause, or apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of B in the join condition in the WHERE clause. For all rows in A that have no matching rows in B, Oracle Database returns null for any select list expressions containing columns of B.

• To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all rows from B (a right outer join), use the RIGHT [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause, or apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of A in the join condition in the WHERE clause. For all rows in B that have no matching rows in A, Oracle returns null for any select list expressions containing columns of A.

• To write a query that performs an outer join and returns all rows from A and B, extended with nulls if they do not satisfy the join condition (a full outer join), use the FULL [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause.

You can use outer joins to fill gaps in sparse data. Such a join is called a partitioned outer join and is formed using the query_partition_clause of the join_clause syntax. Sparse data is data that does not have rows for all possible values of a dimension such as time or department. For example, tables of sales data typically do not have rows for products that had no sales on a given date. Filling data gaps is useful in situations where data sparsity complicates analytic computation or where some data might be missed if the sparse data is queried directly.

See Also:

• join_clause for more information about using outer joins to fill gaps in sparse data

• Oracle Data Warehousing Guide for a complete discussion of group outer joins and filling gaps in sparse data

Oracle recommends that you use the FROM clause OUTER JOIN syntax rather than the Oracle join operator. Outer join queries that use the Oracle join operator (+) are subject to the following rules and restrictions, which do not apply to the FROM clause OUTER JOIN syntax:

• You cannot specify the (+) operator in a query block that also contains FROM clause join syntax.

• The (+) operator can appear only in the WHERE clause or, in the context of left-correlation (that is, when specifying the TABLE clause) in the FROM clause, and can be applied only to a column of a table or view.

• If A and B are joined by multiple join conditions, then you must use the (+) operator in all of these conditions. If you do not, then Oracle Database will return only the rows resulting from a simple join, but without a warning or error to advise you that you do not have the results of an outer join.

• The (+) operator does not produce an outer join if you specify one table in the outer query and the other table in an inner query.

• You cannot use the (+) operator to outer-join a table to itself, although self joins are valid. For example, the following statement is not valid:

  -- The following statement is not valid:
  SELECT employee_id, manager_id 
     FROM employees
     WHERE employees.manager_id(+) = employees.employee_id;
  
  

  However, the following self join is valid:

  SELECT e1.employee_id, e1.manager_id, e2.employee_id
     FROM employees e1, employees e2
     WHERE e1.manager_id(+) = e2.employee_id;
  

• The (+) operator can be applied only to a column, not to an arbitrary expression. However, an arbitrary expression can contain one or more columns marked with the (+) operator.

• A WHERE condition containing the (+) operator cannot be combined with another condition using the OR logical operator.

• A WHERE condition cannot use the IN comparison condition to compare a column marked with the (+) operator with an expression.

• A WHERE condition cannot compare any column marked with the (+) operator with a subquery.

If the WHERE clause contains a condition that compares a column from table B with a constant, then the (+) operator must be applied to the column so that Oracle returns the rows from table A for which it has generated nulls for this column. Otherwise Oracle returns only the results of a simple join.

In a query that performs outer joins of more than two pairs of tables, a single table can be the null-generated table for only one other table. For this reason, you cannot apply the (+) operator to columns of B in the join condition for A and B and the join condition for B and C. Please refer to SELECT for the syntax for an outer join.

Antijoins

An antijoin returns rows from the left side of the predicate for which there are no corresponding rows on the right side of the predicate. That is, it returns rows that fail to match (NOT IN) the subquery on the right side.（antijoin的执行计划到底是什么样的呢？ 是怎么样的一种执行机制呢？现在如果sql中如果用not in的话好像多会采用 hash join）

See Also:

"Using Antijoins: Example"

Semijoins

A semijoin returns rows that match an EXISTS subquery without duplicating rows from the left side of the predicate when multiple rows on the right side satisfy the criteria of the subquery.

Semijoin and antijoin transformation cannot be done if the subquery is on an OR branch of the WHERE clause.

（这一句话到底是什么意思  什么叫 半连接反连接转换）

See Also:

"Using Semijoins: Example"

 

Using Subqueries

A subquery answers multiple-part questions. For example, to determine who works in Taylor's department, you can first use a subquery to determine the department in which Taylor works. You can then answer the original question with the parent SELECT statement. A subquery in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement is also called an inline view. A subquery in the WHERE clause of a SELECT statement is also called a nested subquery.（注意 subquery在 from中和where中是不同的 ）

A subquery can contain another subquery. Oracle Database imposes no limit on the number of subquery levels in the FROM clause of the top-level query. You can nest up to 255 levels of subqueries in the WHERE clause.（在from从句中，subquery的层级是无限制的，可以任意嵌套多层，但是where中的层级是有限制的）

If columns in a subquery have the same name as columns in the containing statement, then you must prefix any reference to the column of the table from the containing statement with the table name or alias. To make your statements easier to read, always qualify the columns in a subquery with the name or alias of the table, view, or materialized view.

Oracle performs a correlated subquery when a nested subquery references a column from a table referred to a parent statement any number of levels above the subquery.（这里算是correlated subquery的一个定义） The parent statement can be a SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement in which the subquery is nested. A correlated subquery is evaluated once for each row processed by the parent statement. （这句话好像不太对。这里说一个correlated subquery会根据parent query返回的row来执行，parent每返回一个row correlated subquery就会被执行一遍。但有时候correlated subquery也会被解析成join的模式。 比如下面的example A 。 在该example中， 第一个correlated subquery并没有因为parent返回的每一条row而执行一遍，因为oracle自动优化成了hash join的模式。只有加上 no_unnes的 hint 才会采用 那种“parent 每返回一条数据 correlated subquery执行一遍的模式”）Oracle resolves unqualified columns in the subquery by looking in the tables named in the subquery and then in the tables named in the parent statement.(这里说明我们应该在subquery中总是为column标注前缀)

 1 example A

SQL> select /*+ gather_plan_statistics */ ename from emp where exists ( select 1 from dept d where emp.deptno=d.deptno and d.dname='ACCOUNTING');

ENAME
------------------------------
MILLER
KING
CLARK

SQL> select * from TABLE(dbms_xplan.display_cursor(null,null,'iostats last'));

PLAN_TABLE_OUTPUT
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SQL_ID  0btzh4asw7k7w, child number 0
-------------------------------------
select /*+ gather_plan_statistics */ ename from emp where exists ( select 1 from
dept d where emp.deptno=d.deptno and d.dname='ACCOUNTING')

Plan hash value: 2319207582

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation           | Name    | Starts | E-Rows | A-Rows |   A-Time   | Buffers |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
|*  1 |  HASH JOIN SEMI     |         |      1 |      5 |      3 |00:00:00.01 |       7 |
|   2 |   TABLE ACCESS FULL | EMP     |      1 |     14 |     14 |00:00:00.01 |       3 |
|   3 |   VIEW              | VW_SQ_1 |      1 |      1 |      1 |00:00:00.01 |       4 |
|*  4 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL| DEPT    |      1 |      1 |      1 |00:00:00.01 |       4 |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------

   1 - access("EMP"."DEPTNO"="DEPTNO")
   4 - filter("D"."DNAME"='ACCOUNTING')


22 rows selected.

SQL> select /*+ gather_plan_statistics */ ename from emp where exists ( select /*+ no_unnest */ 1 from dept d where emp.deptno=d.deptno and d.dname='ACCOUNTING');

ENAME
------------------------------
CLARK
KING
MILLER

SQL> select * from TABLE(dbms_xplan.display_cursor(null,null,'iostats last'));

PLAN_TABLE_OUTPUT
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SQL_ID  08xz61k0nwazc, child number 0
-------------------------------------
select /*+ gather_plan_statistics */ ename from emp where exists ( select
/*+ no_unnest */ 1 from dept d where emp.deptno=d.deptno and
d.dname='ACCOUNTING')

Plan hash value: 53918464

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation          | Name | Starts | E-Rows | A-Rows |   A-Time   | Buffers |
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
|*  1 |  FILTER            |      |      1 |        |      3 |00:00:00.01 |      13 |
|   2 |   TABLE ACCESS FULL| EMP  |      1 |     14 |     14 |00:00:00.01 |       4 |
|*  3 |   TABLE ACCESS FULL| DEPT |      3 |      1 |      1 |00:00:00.01 |       9 |
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------

   1 - filter( IS NOT NULL)
   3 - filter(("D"."DEPTNO"=:B1 AND "D"."DNAME"='ACCOUNTING'))


22 rows selected.

A correlated subquery answers a multiple-part question whose answer depends on the value in each row processed by the parent statement. For example, you can use a correlated subquery to determine which employees earn more than the average salaries for their departments. In this case, the correlated subquery specifically computes the average salary for each department.

See Also:

"Using Correlated Subqueries: Examples"

Use subqueries for the following purposes:

• To define the set of rows to be inserted into the target table of an INSERT or CREATE TABLE statement

• To define the set of rows to be included in a view or materialized view in a CREATE VIEW or CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW statement

• To define one or more values to be assigned to existing rows in an UPDATE statement

• To provide values for conditions in a WHERE clause, HAVING clause, or START WITH clause of SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements

• To define a table to be operated on by a containing query

  You do this by placing the subquery in the FROM clause of the containing query as you would a table name. You may use subqueries in place of tables in this way as well in INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements.

  Subqueries so used can employ correlation variables, but only those defined within the subquery itself, not outer references. Please refer to table_collection_expression for more information.

  Scalar subqueries, which return a single column value from a single row, are a valid form of expression. You can use scalar subquery expressions in most of the places where expr is called for in syntax. Please refer to "Scalar Subquery Expressions" for more information.

Unnesting of Nested Subqueries

Subqueries are nested when they appear in the WHERE clause of the parent statement.（注意这里说的是在where条件中而不是在from中）When Oracle Database evaluates a statement with a nested subquery, it must evaluate the subquery portion multiple times and may overlook some efficient access paths or joins.(这不一定吧？ 按照之前的实验，有时候sub query  即使是 correlated subquery 也可以采用join)

Subquery unnesting unnests and merges the body of the subquery into the body of the statement that contains it, allowing the optimizer to consider them together when evaluating access paths and joins. The optimizer can unnest most subqueries, with some exceptions. Those exceptions include hierarchical subqueries and subqueries that contain a ROWNUM pseudocolumn, one of the set operators, a nested aggregate function, or a correlated reference to a query block that is not the immediate outer query block of the subquery.（need to do test ）

Assuming no restrictions exist, the optimizer automatically unnests some (but not all) of the following nested subqueries:

• Uncorrelated IN subqueries

• IN and EXISTS correlated subqueries, as long as they do not contain aggregate functions or a GROUP BY clause

You can enable extended subquery unnesting by instructing the optimizer to unnest additional types of subqueries:

• You can unnest an uncorrelated NOT IN subquery by specifying the HASH_AJ or MERGE_AJ hint in the subquery.（这里的两个AJ到底是什么意思）

• You can unnest other subqueries by specifying the UNNEST hint in the subquery.（对于前面说的 set operator ， aggregate function等还好使吗？）

  See Also:

  Oracle Database Performance Tuning Guide for information on hints(这里非常值得研究)

Selecting from the DUAL Table

DUAL is a table automatically created by Oracle Database along with the data dictionary. DUAL is in the schema of the user SYS but is accessible by the name DUAL to all users. It has one column, DUMMY, defined to be VARCHAR2(1), and contains one row with a value X. Selecting from the DUAL table is useful for computing a constant expression with the SELECT statement. Because DUAL has only one row, the constant is returned only once. Alternatively, you can select a constant, pseudocolumn, or expression from any table, but the value will be returned as many times as there are rows in the table. Please refer to "SQL Functions" for many examples of selecting a constant value from DUAL.

Distributed Queries

The Oracle distributed database management system architecture lets you access data in remote databases using Oracle Net and an Oracle Database server. You can identify a remote table, view, or materialized view by appending @dblink to the end of its name. The dblink must be a complete or partial name for a database link to the database containing the remote table, view, or materialized view.

See Also:

• "Referring to Objects in Remote Databases" for more information on referring to database links

• Oracle Net Services Administrator's Guide for information on accessing remote databases

Restrictions on Distributed Queries  Distributed queries are currently subject to the restriction that all tables locked by a FOR UPDATE clause and all tables with LONG columns selected by the query must be located on the same database. For example, the following statement raises an error because it selects press_release, a LONG value, from the print_media table on the remote database and locks the print_media table on the local database:

SELECT r.product_id, l.ad_id, r.press_release 
   FROM pm.print_media@remote r, pm.print_media l
   FOR UPDATE OF l.ad_id;

In addition, Oracle Database currently does not support distributed queries that select user-defined types or object REF datatypes on remote tables.