#include <iostream>
#include <typeinfo>
#include <cassert>
#include <map>
//#include <algorithm>
//#include <vector>
//#include <list>
//#include <stack>
//#include <future>
//#include <functional>
using namespace std;
/*
keywords of c++
alignas(c++11) //声明结构体或类的对齐数
alignof(c++11) //查看结构体或类的对齐数
and //等价于 &&
and_eq //等价于 &&=
asm //汇编语句
auto //自动类型
bitand //等价于 &
bitor //等价于 |
bool //bool类型
break //跳出当前循环,或switch
case //结合switch使用
catch //捕获异常
char //1字节变量
short //2字节变量
signed //声明为有符号类型
unsigned //声明为无符号类型
char16_t(c++11) //常使用于Unicode字符
char32_t(c++11) //常使用于Unicode字符
int //默认４字节
long //不比int类型小的类型
class //类,或者声明模板类型
compl //等价于 ~
concept(概念Ts) //专家级别使用
const //声明常变量
constexpr(c++11) //用作函数时,是在编译是进行函数调用的,类似与宏
const_cast //常变量强制转化为其他变量类型
continue //结合循环来使用
decltype(c++11) //与auto差不多,可以用于某个不确定多个参数类型的模板函数
default //结合switch来使用
delete //释放new出来的东西
new //开辟内存
do //配合 while构成循环
explicit //不能隐式构造
export //专家级别使用...
extern //改变某个变量的作用域,常用在不同文件中使用同一个变量
float //4字节的浮点类型
double //８字节的浮点类型
for //for循环
goto //跳转
if //判断
friend //给类中的一些函数使用,可以访问类中的私有成员变量
inline //内联声明, 编译器对该函数进行优化,类中函数和模板函数默认代这个参数
mutable //在lambda表达式中使用表示为传递进来的变量可以被赋值
namespace //声明命名空间
noexcept(c++11) //声明为不抛出异常,利于编译器的优化
not //等价与 !
not_eq //等价于 !=
nullptr(c++11) //c++11以后声明空指针类型,主要解决模板函数中的参数问题
operator //操作运算重载
or //等价与 |
or_eq //等价于 |=
private //声明成员为私有的
public //声明成员为公共的
protected //声明成员为保护的
register //声明在寄存器里的变量
reinterpret_cast //常用在 一个类型的指针转化为另一个类型的指针
requires(概念TS) //一个概念,目前还没有编译器实现
return //函数的返回
static //声明变量为静态的
sizeof //获取某个变量的大小
static_assert(c++11) //静态断言, 常用
static_cast //静态转化
struct //结构体类型
switch //switch分支判断结构
template //声明模板
this //this指针, 常用在class和struct
thread_local(c++11) //结合线程来使用
throw //抛出异常
true //bool类型的真
false //bool类型的假
try //异常尝试
typedef //改变变量名称
typeid //获取类型的id号
typename //声明模板类型
union //联合体
using //可以替换typedef的功能
virtual //虚函数
void //空类型
volatile //直接声明为定死的常量
wchar_t //表示宽字符的
while //循环
xor //异或 ^
xor_eq // ^=
*/
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//alignas
struct alignas(8) S {};
struct alignas(1) U {S s; }; //bad
struct Foo {
int i;
float f;
char c;
};
struct Empty {};
struct alignas(64) Empty64 {};
struct alignas(1) Double { double d; };
struct Obj {char a; int b;};
//sizeof(Obj) == 8
//alignof(Obj) == 4
void alignInfo() {
cout << "Alignment of" << endl
<<"_char : " << alignof(char) << endl
<<"_pointer : " << alignof(int*) << endl
<<"_class Foo : " << alignof(Foo) << endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//and
void showAnd() {
int a = 3;
int b = 4;
if(a == 3 && b == 4) {
cout << "&& a = 3, b = 4";
}
if(a == 3 and b == 4) {
cout << "and a = 3, b = 4";
}
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//and_eq <=> &=
void testAnd_eq() {
bool a = false;
bool b = true;
b = b and_eq a;
cout << b << endl;
bool c = true;
c and_eq a;
cout << "c: " << c << endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//not <=> !
void testNot() {
bool a = true;
bool b = not(a);
cout << b;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//not_eq <=> !=
void testNot_eq() {
bool a = true;
a not_eq(a);
cout << a;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//or <=> |
void testOr() {
int a = 3;
cout << a or 2;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//or <=> |=
void testOr_eq() {
int a = 3;
a or_eq 4;
cout << a;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void showAsm() {
asm (
"movq $60, %rax
" //the exit syscall number on linux
"movq $2, %rdi
" //this program returns 2
"syscall"
);
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
int get_fun(int x) {
return x + 1;
}
double add(double a, double b) {
return a + b;
}
void showAuto() {
auto a = 1 + 2;
cout << "type of a: " << typeid(a).name() << endl;
auto b = add(1, 1.2);
cout << "type of b: " << typeid(b).name() << endl;
auto c = {1, 2}; //初始化列表
cout << "type of c: " << typeid(c).name() << endl;
auto my_lambda = [](int x) { return x + 3; };
cout << "type of my_lambda: " << typeid(my_lambda).name() << endl;
auto my_fun = get_fun;
cout << "my_fun: " << my_fun(3) << endl;
cout << "type of my_fun: " << typeid(my_fun).name() << endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void showBitAndOr() {
auto a = 3l; //long int
auto b = 4;
auto c = a bitand b;
auto d = a bitor b;
cout << "c: " << c << "d: " << d;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void testBool() {
bool a = true;
bool b = false;
*(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&a)) = -1;
cout << a << " " << b << endl;
if(a == true) {
cout << "i'm true";
}else if(a == false){
cout << "i'm false";
}else {
cout << "What?";
}
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void testBreak() {
int a = 10;
for(;;) {
for(;;) {
++a;
if(a > 1000) break;
}
if(a > 100000000) break;
}
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void testCompl() {
int a = -3;
int b = compl(a); // compl(a) <=> ~a
cout << b;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
int fact(int n) {
return n < 1 ? 1 : (n * fact(n - 1));
}
constexpr int factorial(int n) {
return n < 1 ? 1 : (n * factorial(n - 1));
}
template<int N>
struct NN{
void print() { cout << N << endl;}
};
void testConstExpr() {
auto a = fact(4); //运行时计算
auto b = factorial(4); //编译时计算, 类似于宏定义计算
cout << "a: " << a << " b: " << b << endl;
char group[factorial(5)];
NN<factorial(8)> nn;
nn.print();
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
/*
void testThread(const int &a) {
cout << "thread"
}*/
void testConst_cast() {
const int i = 3;
//const int*
int *p = const_cast<int*>(&i);
// std::thread aa([&i](){ testThread(i); });
*p = 5;
cout << p << endl << &i << endl;
cout << i << " " << *p << endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//decltype 与 auto 十分相近
struct A {A(int n) : x(n) {} double x;};
void testDecltype() {
const A* a = new A(0);
auto aa = a->x;
decltype(a->x) y; // 相当于auto aa = a->x
decltype((a->x)) z = y; //相当于 auto & z = y, 引用
y = 3;
// z = 4;
cout << y << endl << z;
}
// 写一个相加函数, 实现不确定类型相加的函数
template<typename T, typename U>
auto add(T a, U b) -> decltype(a + b) { //decltype(a + b) 推导出返回值类型
return a + b;
}
/*
//陷阱: auto
template<typename T, typename U>
auto add(Ta, Ub) {}
return a + b;
// return a + b 与 return (a + b) 可能表示的意义不同, 后者可能代表引用
}*/
//---------------------------------------------------------------
struct Base { virtual ~Base() {} };
struct Drive : Base {
virtual void name() {}
};
void testDynamic_cast() {
Base *b1 = new Base;
//这里会调用不成功
if(Drive *d = dynamic_cast<Drive *>(b1)) {
std::cout << "downcast from b1 to d successful" << std::endl;
d->name(); //safe to call
}
Base *b2 = new Drive;
//这里会调用成功
if(Drive *d = dynamic_cast<Drive *>(b2)) {
std::cout << "downcast from b2 to d successful" << std::endl;
d->name(); //safe to call
}
//对于dynamic_cast转换引用,若转化失败,则会抛出异常
//dynamic_cast 在运行期进行检查
/*
Base bb;
Drive& cc = dynamic_cast<Drive&>(bb);
*/
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
enum Color { red, green, blue };
//老的版本中,若出现 enmu Color2 {red, green, blue}; 就会出先重复的元素,就会报错
void testOldEnum() {
Color r = red;
switch(r) {
case red:
std::cout << "red" << std::endl;
break;
case green:
std::cout << "green" << std::endl;
break;
case blue:
std::cout << "blue" << std::endl;
break;
default:
std::cout << "what ?" << std::endl;
}
}
enum class NewColor {red, green, blue = green + 12};
enum class MyColor : short {black}; //通过short指定元素的类型为short
//若以bool作为函数参数, 建议使用enum来代替bool参数.
enum class IsGood {Yes, No};
enum class IsOk {Yes, No};
void enumBoolTest(IsGood isGood, IsOk isOk) {
}
void testNewEnum() {
NewColor r = NewColor::blue;
switch(r) {
case NewColor::blue: {
cout << "new blue" << endl;
} break;
case NewColor::red: {
cout << "new red" << endl;
} break;
case NewColor::green: {
cout << "new green" << endl;
} break;
default:
cout << "new what?" << endl;
}
int i = static_cast<int>(blue) + static_cast<int>(NewColor::blue);
cout << "blud + NewColor::blue = " << i << endl;
enumBoolTest(IsGood::Yes, IsOk::No);
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//test explicit
struct AA {
AA(int) {}
AA(int, int) {}
operator int() const { return 0; } //AA可以默认的转化为int类型
};
struct BB {
explicit BB(int) {}
BB(int, int) {}
explicit operator int() const { return 0; }
};
void testExplicit() {
AA a1 = 1; //等价于 AA a1 = AA(1);
//而BB就不能 BB b = 1;
AA a2 = {3, 5}; //等价于 AA a1 = AA(3, 5);
BB b2 = {3, 5}; //BB中B(int, int)没有加explicit
int i = a1; //能通过
//而BB就不能 int i = b2;
//将BB强转.
int na2 = static_cast<int>(a1);
int nb2 = static_cast<int>(b2); //强转explicit 可以
AA a4 = (AA)3;
BB b3 = (BB)4; //通过C语言方式强制转换, 可以
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//friend
class MyClass {};
class Friend {
private:
int data; //private member
friend std::ostream &operator << (std::ostream &out, const Friend &o);
//Mycla 类是Fried类的好友, 只是单向
template <typename T> friend class MyCla; //every MyClass<T> is a friend of Friend
template <typename T> friend void f(T) {} //every f<T> if a friend of Firend
public:
Friend(int x) : data(x) {}
operator int() const { return this->data; }
};
//这样可以拿这个函数当公共函数访问私有成员
std::ostream &operator << (std::ostream &out, const Friend &f) {
return out << f.data;
}
//若发生继承关系, MyCla不是, Friend2 的好友.
class Friend2 : public Friend { };
void testFriend() {
Friend a = 44;
cout << a;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//goto
void testGoto() {
auto i = 0;
NO:
if(i < 5) {
cout << i;
i ++;
goto NO;
}
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//inline
//尽量的减少栈空间开辟和回收操作
//类和模板函数,默认会加上inline进行优化.
//但不一定快
//inline 也可以与 namespace一起用， inline namespace
inline int plus(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
class Inline {
//在类中的函数里,编译器会默认加上inline进行优化
public:
void Member() const { std::cout << "hello
"; }
int vlaue() const { return this->m_value; }
private:
int m_value;
};
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//namespace
namespace XGroup {
class A_ {
int value;
};
}
namespace YGroup {
class A_ {
int value;
};
class B_ {
int value;
};
}
void testNmaespace() {
XGroup::A_ a;
YGroup::A_ b;
}
void testNamespace2() {
using namespace XGroup;
A_ a;
using namespace YGroup;
B_ b; //可以不用写 YGroup::B_
}
void testNamespace3() {
namespace CGroup = XGroup;
CGroup::A_ a;
using YGroup::B_;
B_ b;
}
//没有名字的namespace
namespace {
std::string astring("long"); //相当于 static std::string astirng
}
void testNamespace4() {
cout << astring; //打印astring
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//noexcept
void noexCept() noexcept { //声明确定不会抛出异常,可以减轻编译器压力,利于优化代码.
std::cout << "hello" << std::endl;
//std::terminate(); abort(); exit(0);
}
void noexCept2() noexcept(false) { //等价于没写
std::cout << "hello" << std::endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
void nullPointer(int *a) {
}
template<typename T, typename U>
void func(T t, U u) {
t(u);
}
void testNullPointer() {
//三者直接调用,结果一样
nullPointer(0);
nullPointer(NULL); //(void*)0
nullPointer(nullptr); //std::nullptr_t 在c++11中有专有的类型
//利用模板函数之后, NULL 模板函数推导为int
func(nullPointer, nullptr);
//不能调用
// func(nullPointer, NULL);
// func(nullPointer, 0);
//若想调用,需要强制转换
func(nullPointer, (int*)0);
func(nullPointer, (int*)NULL);
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//operator
struct Operator {
public:
Operator(int x) : data(x) { }
// operator int() const { return this->data; }
int operator << (Operator const& o) const {
return data + o.data;
}
int operator & () const { return data; }
private:
int data;
};
void testOperator() {
Operator a = 10;
Operator b = 5;
Operator c = a << b; //实际实现相加
cout << &c << endl; //采用去地址符号实现返回里面的值
}
//实例应用:
/*
struct AClass {
~AClass() { delete m_value}
AClass() : m_value(new int()) {}
private:
int *m_value;
}
void test() {
Aclass A;
Aclass B;
A = B; //这种情况,里面的值m_value,会发生直接赋值,A和B直接指向同一块内存,
//会发生两次析构,内存会错误.
} */
//使用操作符重载 = 来避免:
struct AClass {
~AClass() { delete m_value;}
AClass(const AClass& rhs) : m_value(new int(*(rhs.m_value))) {}
AClass& operator = (const AClass& rhs) {
*m_value = *(rhs.m_value);
return *this;
}
private:
int *m_value;
};
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//reinterpret_cast
void testReinterpret_cast() {
//reinterpret_cast
//static_cast
//const_cast
//dynamic_cast
//c like cast 可以实现以上的大部分, 而dynamic_cast c语言这种方式不能实现的
int a = 1;
// 也相当于 char* p = (char*)&a;
auto p = reinterpret_cast<char *>(&a); //转化为char*
//不能char* b = static_cast<char*> &b;
if(p[0] = 1) {
std::cout << "the system is little endian
";
}else {
std::cout << "the system is big endian
";
}
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//sizeof, before c++11
struct SizeofEmpty {};
struct SizeofBase { int a;};
struct SizeofDerived : Base{ int b;};
struct SizeofBit {unsigned bit : 1;};
void testSizeof() {
SizeofEmpty e;
SizeofDerived d;
SizeofBase b;
SizeofBit bit;
cout << "sizeof empty: " << sizeof e << endl;
cout << "sizeof derived: " << sizeof d << endl;
cout << "sizeof base: " << sizeof(b) << endl;
cout << "sizeof bit: " << sizeof(SizeofBit) << endl;
// cout << "szieof void" << sizeof(void) << endl;
// cout << "szieof int[]" << sizeof(int[]) << endl;
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//static
//最好要这么用
static int globalA = 0;
void printInfo() {
static int localStatic = 0; //多线程不要这么用
++ localStatic;
cout << "globalA: " << globalA << " " << "localStatic: " << localStatic << endl;
}
struct Static {
static int s; //注意: sizeof(Static) == 1, s的空间已经分配
};
int Static::s = 10;
struct HeHe {};
struct Static2 {
static int a[];
static HeHe foo;
static Static2 ss;
};
//对成员进行实例化
int Static2::a[10];
HeHe Static2::foo;
Static2 Static2::ss;
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//static_assert c++11的一个宏, 在编译期进行检测
//assert 是在运行的时候进行检测
void testStaticAssert() {
static_assert(sizeof(int) == 4, "only work for int of 32bit");
static_assert(sizeof(long) == sizeof(long long),
"only work for int of 32bit");
int a = 5; //判断变量 a == b 采用assert
int b = 5;
assert(a != b && "error");
}
template<typename T>
void static_assertFun() {
static_assert(alignof(T) ==4, "only for alignof 4");
}
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//typedef , 换名称
typedef unsigned long ulong;
class Comp {
typedef std::map<int, ulong> Group;
Group a; //相当于 std::map<int, ulong> a;
void aa() {
//std::map<int, ulong>::iterator iter = a.find(10)
Group::iterator iter = a.find(10);
//也可以使用: auto iter = a.fine(10);
}
};
//---------------------------------------------------------------
//using
//可以使用与namespace,也可以替换typedef
using newGroup = std::map<int, ulong>;
//using namespace std;
//---------------------------------------------------------------
int main(void) {
// showAuto();
// showBitAndOr();
// showAsm();
// testAnd_eq();
// testNot();
// testNot_eq();
// testBool();
// testBreak();
// testCompl();
// testConstExpr();
// testConst_cast();
// testDecltype();
// testDynamic_cast();
// testOldEnum();
// testNewEnum();
// testExplicit();
// testFriend();
// testGoto();
// testNamespace4();
// testOperator();
// testReinterpret_cast();
// testSizeof();
testStaticAssert();
return 0;
}