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  • 高级进程间通信之传送文件描述符

    在进程间传送打开的文件描述符的能力是非常有用的,可以用它对客户进程/服务器进程应用进行不同的设计。它使一个进程(一般是服务器进程)能够处理为打开一个文件所要求的一切操作(具体如将网络名翻译为网络地址、拨号调制解调器、协商文件锁等)以及向调用进程送回一描述符,该描述符可被用于以后的所有I/O函数。涉及打开文件或设备的所有细节对客户进程而言都是隐藏的。

    下面进一步说明从一个进程向另一个进程“传送一打开的文件描述符”的含义。回忆http://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3498509.html中的图3-2,其中显示了两个进程,它们打开了同一文件。虽然它们共享同一v节点表,但每个进程都有它自己的文件表项。

    当一个进程向另一个进程传送一打开的文件描述符时,我们想要发送进程和接收进程共享同一文件表项。图17-8显示了所希望的安排。

    未命名

                                       图17-8 从顶部进程传送一个打开的文件至底部进程

    在技术上,发送进程实际上向接收进程传送一个指向一打开文件表项的指针。该指针被分配存放在接收进程的第一个可用描述符项中。(注意,不要造成错觉,以为发送进程和接收进程中的描述符编号是相同的,通常它们是不同的。)两个进程共享同一打开文件表项,在这一点上与fork之后,父、子进程共享打开文件表项的情况完全相同(参考http://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3509492.html中图8-1所示)。

    当发送进程将描述符传送给接收进程后,通常它关闭该描述符。发送进程关闭该描述符并不造成关闭该文件或设备,其原因是该描述符对应的文件仍被视为由接收者进程打开(即使接收进程尚未接收到该描述符)。

    下面定义三个函数以发送和接收文件描述符。本节将会给出对于STREAMS和套接字的这三个函数的不同实现代码。

    #include "apue.h"
    
    int send_fd(int fd, int fd_to_send);
    
    int send_err(int fd, int status, const char *errmsg);
    
    两个函数返回值:若成功则返回0,出错则返回-1
    
    int recv_fd(int fd, ssize_t (*userfunc)(int, const void *, size_t));
    
    返回值:若成功则返回文件描述符,出错则返回负值

    当一个进程(通常是服务器进程)希望将一个描述符传送给另一个进程时,它调用send_fd或send_err。等待接收描述符的进程(客户进程)调用recv_fd。

    send_fd经由fd代表的STREAMS管道或UNIX域套接字发送描述符fd_to_send。

    send_err函数用fd发送errmsg以及后随的status字节。status的值应在-1到-255之间。

    客户进程调用recv_fd接收一描述符。如果一切正常(发送者调用了send_fd),则作为函数值返回非负描述符。否则,返回值是由send_err发送的status(-1到-255之间的一个值)。另外,如果服务器进程发送了一条出错消息,则客户进程调用它自己的userfunc处理该消息。userfunc的第一个参数是常量STDERR_FILENO,然后是指向出错消息的指针及其长度。userfunc函数的返回值是已写的字节数或负的出错编号值。客户进程常将userfunc指定为通常的write函数。

    我们实现了用于这三个函数的我们自己指定的协议。为发送一描述符,send_fd先发送两个0字节,然后是实际描述符。为了发送一条出错消息,send_err发送errmsg,然后是1个0字节,最后是status字节的绝对值(1-255)。recv_fd读s管道(可以实现为STREAMS管道或UNIX域套接字的双向通信管道)中所有字节直至null字符。null字符之前的所有字符都传送给调用者的userfunc。recv_fd读到的下一个字节是status字节。若status字节为0,那么一个描述符已传送过来,否则表示没有描述符可接收。

    send_err函数在将出错消息写到STREAMS管道后,即调用send_fd函数。如程序清单17-11所示。

    程序清单17-11 send_err函数

    #include "apue.h"
    
    /*
    * Used when we had planned to send an fd using send_fd(),
    * but encountered an error instead. We send the error back
    * using the send_fd()/recv_fd() protocol.
    */
    int
    send_err(int fd, int errcode, const char *msg)
    {
        int    n;
        
        if((n = strlen(msg)) > 0)
            if(writen(fd, msg, n) != n)    /* send the error message */
                return(-1);
    
        if(errcode >= 0)
            errcode = -1;    /* must be negtive */
    
        if(send_fd(fd, errcode) < 0)
            return(-1);
            
        return(0);
    }

    1、经由基于STREAMS的管道传送文件描述符

    文件描述符用两个ioctl命令经由STREAMS管道交换,这两个命令是:I_SENDFD和I_RECVFD。为了发送一个描述符,将ioctl的第三个参数设置为实际描述符。

    程序清单17-12 STREAMS管道的send_fd函数

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <stropts.h>
    
    /*
    * Pass a file descriptor to another process.
    * If fd < 0, then -fd is sent back instead as the error status.
    */
    int 
    send_fd(int fd, int fd_to_send)
    {
        char     buf[2];        /* send_fd()/recv_fd() 2-byte protocol */
    
        buf[0] = 0;        /* null bytes flag to recv_fd() */
        if(fd_to_send < 0)
        {
            buf[1] = -fd_to_send;    /* nonzero status means error */
            if(buf[1] == 0)
                buf[1] = 1;    /* -256, etc. would screw up protocol */ 
        }
        else
        {
            buf[1] = 0;    /* zero status means OK */
        }
        
        if(write(fd, buf, 2) != 2)
            return(-1);
    
        if(fd_to_send >= 0)
            if(ioctl(fd, I_SENDFD, fd_to_send) < 0)
                return(-1);
        return(0);
    }

    当接收一个描述符时,ioctl的第三个参数是一指向strrecvfd结构的指针。

    struct strrecvfd {
        int      fd;     /* new descriptor */
        uid_t    uid;    /* effective user ID of sender */
        gid_t    gid;    /* effective group ID of sender */
        char     fill[8];
    };

    recv_fd读STREAMS管道直到接收到双字节协议的第一个字节(null字节)。当发出I_RECVFD ioctl命令时,位于流首读队列中的下一条消息应当是一个描述符,它是由I_SENDFD发来的,或者是一条出错消息。

    程序清单17-13 STREAMS管道的recv_fd函数

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <stropts.h>
    
    /*
    * Receive a file descirpor from another process ( a server ).
    * In addition, any data received from the server is passed
    * to (*userfunc)(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nbytes). We have a 
    * 2-byte protocol for receiving the fd from send_fd(). 
    */
    int
    recv_fd(int fd, ssize_t (*userfunc)(int, const void *, size_t))
    {
        itn                  newfd,    nread, flag, status;
        char                *ptr;
        char                 buf[MAXLINE];
        struct strbuf        dat;
        struct strrecvfd     recvfd;
        
        status = -1;
        for(;;)
        {
            dat.buf = buf;
            dat.maxlen = MAXLINE;
            flag = 0;
            if(getmsg(fd, NULL, &dat, &flag) < 0)
                err_sys("getmsg error");
            nread = dat.len;
            if(nread == 0)
            {
                err_ret("connection closed by server");
                return(-1);
            }
            /*
            * See if this is the final data with null & status.
            * Null must be next to last byte of buffer, status
            * byte is last byte. Zero status means there must 
            * be a file descriptor to receive.
            */
            for(ptr = buf; ptr < &buf[nread]; )
            {
                if(*ptr++ == 0)
                {
                    if(ptr != &buf[nread - 1])
                        err_dump("message format error");
                    status = *ptr & 0xFF;    /* prevent sign extension */
                    if(status == 0)
                    {
                        if(ioctl(fd, I_RECVFD, &recvfd) < 0)
                            return(-1);
                        newfd = recvfd.fd; /* new descriptor */
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        newfd = -status;
                    }
                    nread -= 2;
                }
            }
            if(nread > 0)
                if((*userfunc(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nread) != nread))
                    return(-1);
    
            if(status >= 0)    /* final data has arrived */
                return(newfd);    /* descriptor, or -status */
        }
            
    }

    2、经由UNIX域套接字传送文件描述符

    为了用UNIX域套接字交换文件描述符,调用sendmsg(2)和recvmsg(2)函数(http://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3567376.html)。这两个函数的参数中都有一个指向msghdr结构的指针,该结构包含了所有有关收发内容的信息。该结构的定义大致如下:

    struct msghdr {
        void            *msg_name;         /* optional address */
        socklen_t        msg_namelen;      /* address size in bytes */
        struct iovec    *msg_iov;          /* array of I/O buffers */
        int              msg_iovlen;       /* number of elements in array */
        void            *msg_control;      /* ancillary data */
        socklen_t        msg_controllen;   /* number of ancillary bytes */
        int              msg_flags;        /* flags for received message */
    };

    其中,头两个元素通常用于在网络连接上发送数据报文,在这里,目的地址可以由每个数据报文指定。下面两个元素使我们可以指定由多个缓冲区构成的数组(散布读和聚集写),这与对readv和writev函数(http://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3559304.html)的说明一样。msg_flags字段包含了说明所接收到消息的标志,这些标志摘要示于表16-9中(http://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3567376.html)。

    有两个参数用来处理控制信息的传送和接收:msg_control字段指向cmsghdr(控制信息首部)结构,msg_contrllen字段包含控制信息的字节数。

    struct cmsghdr {
        socklen_t        cmsg_len;      /* data byte count, including header */
        int              cmsg_level;    /* originating protocol */
        int              cmsg_type;     /* protocol-specific type */
        /* followed by the actual control message data */
    };

    为了发送文件描述符,将cmsg_len设置为cmsghdr结构的长度加一个整型(描述符)的长度,cmsg_level字段设置为SOL_SOCKET,cmsg_type字段设置为SCM_RIGHTS,用以指明我们在传送访问权。(SCM指的是套接字级控制信息,socket_level cnotrol message。)访问权仅能通过UNIX域套接字传送。描述符紧随cmsg_type字段之后存放,用CMSG_DATA宏获得该整型量的指针。

    三个宏用于访问控制数据,一个宏用于帮助计算smsg_len所使用的值。

    #include <sys/socket.h>
    
    unsigned char *CMSG_DATA(struct cmsghdr *cp);
    返回值:指向与cmsghdr结构相关联的数据的指针
    
    struct cmsghdr *CMSG_FIRSTHDR(struct msghdr *mp);
    返回值:指向与msghdr结构相关联的第一个cmsghdr结构的指针,若无这样的结构则返回NULL
    
    struct cmsghdr *CMSG_NXTHDR(struct msghdr *mp, struct cmsghdr *cp);
    返回值:指向与msghdr结构相关联的下一个cmsghdr结构的指针,该msghdr结构给出了当前cmsghdr结构,若当前cmsghdr结构已是最后一个则返回NULL
    
    unsigned int CMSG_LEN(unsigned int nbytes);
    返回值:为nbytes大小的数据对象分配的长度

    Single UNIX规范定义了前三个宏,但没有定义CMSG_LEN。

    GMSG_LEN宏返回为存放长度为nbytes的数据对象(控制数据)所需的字节数。它先将nbytes加上cmsghdr结构(控制数据头部)的长度,然后按处理机体系结构的对齐要求进行调整,最后再向上取整。

    程序清单17-14 UNIX域套接字的send_fd函数

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <sys/socket.h>
    
    /* size of control buffer to send/recv one file descriptor */
    #define    CONTROLLEN    CMSG_LEN(sizeof(int))
    
    static struct cmsghdr    *cmptr = NULL;    /* malloc'ed first time */
    
    /*
    * Pass a file descriptor to another process.
    * If fd < 0, then -fd is sent back instead as the error status.
    */
    int send_fd(int fd, int fd_to_send)
    {
        struct iovec     iov[1];
        struct msghdr    msg;
        char             buf[2];    /* send_fd()/recv_fd() 2-byte protocol */
    
        iov[0].iov_base     = buf;
        iov[0].iov_len      = 2;
        msg.msg_iov         = iov;
        msg.msg_iovlen      = 1;
        msg.msg_name        = NULL;
        msg.msg_namelen     = 0;
        
        if(fd_to_send < 0)
        {
            msg.msg_control    = NULL;
            msg.msg_controllen = 0;
            buf[1] = -fd_to_send;    /* nonzero status means error */
            if(buf[1] == 0)
                buf[1] = 1;    /* -256, etc. would screw up protocol */        
        }
        else
        {
            if(cmptr == NULL && (cmptr = malloc(CONTROLLEN)) == NULL)
                return(-1);
            cmptr->cmsg_level      = SOL_SOCKET;
            cmptr->cmsg_type       = SCM_RIGHTS;
            cmptr->cmsg_len        = CONTROLLEN;
            msg.msg_control        = cmptr;
            msg.msg_controllen     = CONTROLLEN;
            *(int *)CMSG_DATA(cmptr) = fd_to_send;    /* the fd to pass */
            buf[1] = 0;    /* zero status means ok */
        }
        buf[0] = 0;    /* null byte flag to recv_fd() */
        if(sendmsg(fd, &msg, 0) != 2)
            return(-1);
        return(0);
    }

    在sendmsg调用中,发送双字节协议数据(null和status字节)和描述符。

    为了接收文件描述符,我们为cmsghdr结构和描述符分配足够大的空间,将msg_control指向该存储空间,然后调用recvmsg。我们使用MSG_LEN宏计算所需空间的总量。

    我们从UNIX域套接字读入,直至读到null字节,它位于最后的status字节之前。null字节之前是一条来自发送者的出错消息。

    程序清单17-15 UNIX域套接字的recv_fd函数

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <sys/socket.h>    /* struct msghdr */
    
    /* size of control buffer to send/recv one file descriptor */
    #define CONTOLLEN    CMSG_LEN(sizeof(int))
    
    static struct cmsghdr    *cmptr = NULL;    /* malloc'ed first time */
    
    /*
    * Receive a file descriptor from a server process. Also, any data
    * received is passed to (*userfunc)(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nbytes).
    * We have a 2-byte protocol for receiving the fd from send_fd().
    */
    int
    recv_fd(int fd, ssize_t (*userfunc)(int, const void *, size_t))
    {
        int              newfd,    nr, status;
        char            *ptr;
        char             buf[MAXLINE];
        struct iovec     iov[1];
        struct msghdr    msg;
        status = -1;
        for(;;)
        {
            iov[0].iov_base   = buf;
            iov[0].iov_len    = sizeof(buf);
            msg.msg_iov       = iov;    
            msg.msg_iovlen    = 1;
            msg.msg_name      = NULL;
            msg.msg_namelen   = 0;
            
            if(cmptr == NULL && (cmptr = malloc(CONTROLLEN)) == NULL)
                return(-1);
            msg.msg_control        = cmptr;
            msg.msg_controllen     = CONTROLLEN;
            if((nr = recvmsg(fd, &msg, 0)) < 0)
            {
                err_sys("recvmsg error");    
            }
            else if(nr == 0)
            {
                err_ret("connection close by server");
                return(-1);    
            }
    
            /*
            * See if this is the final data with null & status. Null
            * is next to last byte to buffer; status byte is last byte.
            * Zero status means there is a file descriptor to receive. 
            */
            for(ptr = buf; ptr < &buf[nr];)
            {
                if(*ptr++ == 0)
                {
                    if(ptr != &buf[nr - 1])
                    {
                        err_dump("message format error");
                    }
                    status = *ptr & 0xFF;    /* prevent sign extension */
                    if(status == 0)
                    {
                        if(msg.msg_controllen != CONTROLLEN)
                        {
                            err_dump("status = 0 but no fd");
                        }
                        newfd = *(int *)CMSG_DATA(cmptr);
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        newfd = -status;
                    }
                    nr -= 2;
                }
            }
            if(nr > 0 && (*userfunc)(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nr) != nr)
                return(-1);
            if(status >= 0)    /* final data has arrived */
                return(newfd);    /* descriptor, or -status */
        }
    }

    注意,该程序总是准备接收一描述符(在每次调用recvmsg之前,设置msg_control和msg_controllen),但是仅当在返回时,msg_controllen非0,才确实接收到一描述符。

    在传送文件描述符方面,UNIX域套接字和STREAMS管道之间的一个区别是,用STREAMS管道时我们得到发送进程的身份。

    FreeBSD 5.2.1和Linux 2.4.22支持在UNIX域套接字上发送凭证,但实现方式不同。

    在FreeBSD,将凭证作为cmsgcred结构传送。

    #define    CMGROUP_MAX    16
    
    struct cmsgcred {
        pid_t    cmcred_pid;                     /* sender's process ID */
        uid_t    cmcred_uid;                     /* sender's real UID */
        uid_t    cmcred_euid;                    /* sender's effective UID */
        gid_t    cmcred_gid;                     /* sender's read GID */
        short    cmcred_ngroups;                 /* number of groups */
        gid_t    cmcred_groups[CMGROUP_MAX];     /* groups */
    };

    当传送凭证时,仅需为cmsgcred结构保留存储空间。内核将填充该结构以防止应用程序伪装成具有另一种身份。

    在Linux中,将凭证作为ucred结构传送。

    struct ucred {
        uint32_t    pid;    /* sender's process ID */
        uint32_t    uid;    /* sender's user ID */
        uint32_t    gid;    /* sender's group ID */
    };

    不同于FreeBSD的是,Linux要求在传送前先将结构初始化。内核将确保应用程序使用对应于调用程序的值,或具有适当的权限使用其他值。

    程序清单17-16 在UNIX域套接字上发送凭证

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <sys/socket.h>
    
    #if define(SCM_CRED)    /* BSD interface */
    #define CREDSTRUCT    cmsgcred
    #define SCM_CREDTYPE    SCM_CREDS
    #elif define(SCM_CREDENTIALS)    /* Linux interface */
    #define CREDSTRUCT    ucred
    #define    SCM_CREDTYPE    SCM_CREDENTIALS
    #else
    #error passing credentials is unsupported!
    #endif
    
    /* size of control buffer to send/recv one file descriptor */
    #define    CONTROLLEN    CMSG_LEN(sizeof(int))
    
    static struct cmsghdr    *cmptr = NULL;    /* malloc'ed first time */
    
    /*
    * Pass a file descriptor to another process.
    * If fd < 0, then -fd is sent back instead as the error status.
    */
    int send_fd(int fd, int fd_to_send)
    {
        struct CREDSTRUCT    *credp;
        struct cmsghdr        *cmp;
        struct iovec        iov[1];
        struct msghdr        msg;
        char            buf[2];    /* send_fd()/recv_fd() 2-byte protocol */
    
        iov[0].iov_base     = buf;
        iov[0].iov_len     = 2;
        msg.msg_iov     = iov;
        msg.msg_iovlen     = 1;
        msg.msg_name     = NULL;
        msg.msg_namelen     = 0;
        msg.msg_flags = 0;
    
        if(fd_to_send < 0)
        {
            msg.msg_control    = NULL;
            msg.msg_controllen = 0;
            buf[1] = -fd_to_send;    /* nonzero status means error */
            if(buf[1] == 0)
                buf[1] = 1;    /* -256, etc. would screw up protocol */        
        }
        else
        {
            if(cmptr == NULL && (cmptr = malloc(CONTROLLEN)) == NULL)
                return(-1);
            msg.msg_control        = cmptr;
            msg.msg_controllen    = CONTROLLEN;
            cmp = cmptr;
            cmp->cmsg_level        = SOL_SOCKET;
            cmp->cmsg_type        = SCM_RIGHTS;
            cmp->cmsg_len        = RIGHTSLEN;
            *(int *)CMSG_DATA(cmp) = fd_to_send;    /* the fd to pass */
            
            cmp = CMSG_NXTHDR(&msg, cmp);
            cmp->cmsg_level =SOL_SOCKET;
            cmp->cmsg_type    = SCM_CREDTYPE;
            cmp->cmsg_len    = CREADSLEN;
            credp = (struct CREADSTRUCT *)CMSG_DATA(cmp);
    #if defined(SCM_CREDENTIALS)
            credp->uid = geteuid();
            credp->gid = getegid();
            credp->pid = getpid();
    #endif
            buf[1] = 0;    /* zero status means ok */
        }
        buf[0] = 0;    /* null byte flag to recv_fd() */
        if(sendmsg(fd, &msg, 0) != 2)
            return(-1);
        return(0);
    }

    注意,只是Linux上才需要初始化凭证结构。

    程序清单17-17 在UNIX域套接字上接收凭证

    #include "apue.h"
    #include <sys/socket.h>    /* struct msghdr */
    
    
    **************************************
    
    #if define(SCM_CRED)    /* BSD interface */
    #define CREDSTRUCT    cmsgcred
    #define CR_UID        cmcred_uid
    #define CREDOPT        LOCAL_PEERCRED
    #define SCM_CREDTYPE    SCM_CREDS
    #elif define(SCM_CREDENTIALS)    /* Linux interface */
    #define CREDSTRUCT    ucred
    #define    CR_UID        uid
    #define    CREDOPT        SO_PASSCRED
    #define    SCM_CREDTYPE    SCM_CREDENTIALS
    #else
    #error passing credentials is unsupported!
    #endif
    
    /* size of control buffer to send/recv one file descriptor */
    #define RIGHTSLEN    CMSG_LEN(sizeof(int))
    #define CREDSLEN    CMSG_LEN(sizeof(struct CREDSTRUCT))
    #define    CONTROLLEN    (RIGHTSLEN + CREDSLEN)
    
    static struct cmsghdr    *cmptr = NULL;    /* malloc'ed first time */
    
    /*
    * Receive a file descriptor from a server process. Also, any data
    * received is passed to (*userfunc)(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nbytes).
    * We have a 2-byte protocol for receiving the fd from send_fd().
    */
    int
    recv_fd(int fd, uid_t *uidptr, ssize_t (*userfunc)(int, const void *, size_t))
    {
        struct cmsghdr        *cmp;    
        struct CREDSTRUCT     *credp;
        int                    newfd,    nr, status;
        char                  *ptr;
        char                   buf[MAXLINE];
        struct iovec           iov[1];
        struct msghdr          msg;
        const int              on = 1;
    
        status = -1;
        newfd = -1;
        if(setsockopt(fd, SOL_SOCKET, CREDOPT, &on, sizeof(int)) < 0)
        {
            err_ret("setsockopt failed");
            return(-1);
        }
        for(;;)
        {
            iov[0].iov_base   = buf;
            iov[0].iov_len    = sizeof(buf);
            msg.msg_iov       = iov;    
            msg.msg_iovlen    = 1;
            msg.msg_name      = NULL;
            msg.msg_namelen   = 0;
            
            if(cmptr == NULL && (cmptr = malloc(CONTROLLEN)) == NULL)
                return(-1);
            msg.msg_control        = cmptr;
            msg.msg_controllen     = CONTROLLEN;
            if((nr = recvmsg(fd, &msg, 0)) < 0)
            {
                err_sys("recvmsg error");    
            }
            else if(nr == 0)
            {
                err_ret("connection close by server");
                return(-1);    
            }
    
            /*
            * See if this is the final data with null & status. Null
            * is next to last byte to buffer; status byte is last byte.
            * Zero status means there is a file descriptor to receive. 
            */
            for(ptr = buf; ptr < &buf[nr];)
            {
                if(*ptr++ == 0)
                {
                    if(ptr != &buf[nr - 1])
                    {
                        err_dump("message format error");
                    }
                    status = *ptr & 0xFF;    /* prevent sign extension */
                    if(status == 0)
                    {
                        if(msg.msg_controllen != CONTROLLEN)
                        {
                            err_dump("status = 0 but no fd");
                        }
                        
                        /* process the control data */
                        for(cmp = CMSG_FIRSTHDR(&msg); cmp != NULL; cmp = CMSG_NXTHDR(&msg, cmp))
                        {
                            if(cmp->cmsg_level != SOL_SOCKET)
                                continue;
                            switch(cmp->cmsg_type)
                            {
                                case SCM_RIGHTS:
                                    newfd = *(int *)CMSG_DATA(cmptr);    
                                    break;
                                case SCM_CREDTYPE:
                                    credp = (struct CREDSTRUCT *)CMSG_DATA(cmp);
                                    *uidptr = credp->CR_UID;
                                    
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        newfd = -status;
                    }
                    nr -= 2;
                }
            }
            if(nr > 0 && (*userfunc)(STDERR_FILENO, buf, nr) != nr)
                return(-1);
            if(status >= 0)    /* final data has arrived */
                return(newfd);    /* descriptor, or -status */
        }
    }

    本篇博文内容摘自《UNIX环境高级编程》(第二版),仅作个人学习记录所用。关于本书可参考:http://www.apuebook.com/

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  • 原文地址:https://www.cnblogs.com/nufangrensheng/p/3571370.html
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