上下文管理

一个小插曲！！！！！！！！！

上下文管理器(context managers )

1. 上下文管理器是什么？

举个例子，你在写Python代码的时候经常将一系列操作放在一个语句块中：

当某条件为真 – 执行这个语句块

当某条件为真 – 循环执行这个语句块

有时候我们需要在当程序在语句块中运行时保持某种状态，并且在离开语句块后结束这种状态。

所以，事实上上下文管理器的任务是 – 代码块执行前准备，代码块执行后收拾。

上下文管理器是在Python2.5加入的功能，它能够让你的代码可读性更强并且错误更少。接下来，让我们来看看该如何使用。

2. 如何使用上下文管理器？

看代码是最好的学习方式，来看看我们通常是如何打开一个文件并写入”Hello World”？

filename = 'my_file'
mode = 'w'
writer = open(filename, mode)
writer.write('hello')
writer.write(' world')
writer.close()

1-2行，我们指明文件名以及打开方式(写入)。
第3行，打开文件，4-5行写入“Hello world”，第6行关闭文件。
这样不就行了，为什么还需要上下文管理器？但是我们忽略了一个很小但是很重要的细节：如果我们没有机会到达第6行关闭文件，那会怎样？
举个例子，磁盘已满，因此我们在第4行尝试写入文件时就会抛出异常，而第6行则根本没有机会执行。

当然，我们可以使用try-finally语句块来进行包装：

writer = open(filename, mode)
try:
    writer.write('hello')
    writer.write(' world')
finally:
    writer.close()

finally语句块中的代码无论try语句块中发生了什么都会执行。因此可以保证文件一定会关闭。这么做有什么问题么？当然没有，但当我们进行一些比写入“Hello world”更复杂的事情时，try-finally语句就会变得丑陋无比。例如我们要打开两个文件，一个读一个写，两个文件之间进行拷贝操作，那么通过with语句能够保证两者能够同时被关闭。

OK，让我们把事情分解一下：

　　1、创建一个名为“writer”的文件变量。

　　2、对writer执行一些操作。

　　3、关闭writer。

这样是不是优雅多了？

filename = 'my_file'
mode = 'w'
with open(filename, mode) as writer:
    writer.write('hello')
    writer.write(' world')

让我们深入一点，“with”是一个新关键词，并且总是伴随着上下文管理器出现。“open(filename, mode)”曾经在之前的代码中出现。“as”是另一个关键词，它指代了从“open”函数返回的内容，并且把它赋值给了一个新的变量。“writer”是一个新的变量名。

2-3行，缩进开启一个新的代码块。在这个代码块中，我们能够对writer做任意操作。这样我们就使用了“open”上下文管理器，它保证我们的代码既优雅又安全。它出色的完成了try-finally的任务。

open函数既能够当做一个简单的函数使用，又能够作为上下文管理器。这是因为open函数返回了一个文件类型(file type)变量，而这个文件类型实现了我们之前用到的write方法，但是想要作为上下文管理器还必须实现一些特殊的方法，我会在接下来的小节中介绍。

3. 自定义上下文管理器

让我们来写一个“open”上下文管理器。

要实现上下文管理器，必须实现两个方法 – 一个负责进入语句块的准备操作，另一个负责离开语句块的善后操作。同时，我们需要两个参数：文件名和打开方式。

Python类包含两个特殊的方法，分别名为：__enter__以及__exit__(双下划线作为前缀及后缀)。

当一个对象被用作上下文管理器时：

　　__enter__ 方法将在进入代码块前被调用。

　　__exit__ 方法则在离开代码块之后被调用(即使在代码块中遇到了异常)。

下面是上下文管理器的一个例子，它分别进入和离开代码块时进行打印。

class PypixContextManagerDemo:
    def __enter__(self):
        print('Entering the block')

    def __exit__(self, *unused):
        print("Exiting the block")

with PypixContextManagerDemo():
    print("In the block")

-------------打印结果-----------------
　　# Entering the block
　　# In the block
　　# Exiting the block

注意一些东西：

• 没有传递任何参数。
• 在此没有使用“as”关键词。
• 稍后我们将讨论__exit__方法的参数设置。

我们如何给一个类传递参数？其实在任何类中，都可以使用__init__方法，在此我们将重写它以接收两个必要参数(filename, mode)。

当我们进入语句块时，将会使用open函数，正如第一个例子中那样。而当我们离开语句块时，将关闭一切在__enter__函数中打开的东西。

以下是我们的代码：

class PypixContextManagerDemo:
    def __init__(self, filename, mode):
        self.filename = filename
        self.mode = mode

    def __enter__(self):
        self.openedFile = open(self.filename, self.mode)
        return self.openedFile

    def __exit__(self, *unused):
        self.openedFile.close()

with PypixContextManagerDemo('my_test', 'w') as f:
    f.write('hello world')

来看看有哪些变化：

3-5行，通过__init__接收了两个参数。

7-9行，打开文件并返回。

12行，当离开语句块时关闭文件。

14-15行，模仿open使用我们自己的上下文管理器。

除此之外，还有一些需要强调的事情：

如何处理异常

我们完全忽视了语句块内部可能出现的问题。

如果语句块内部发生了异常，__exit__方法将被调用，而异常将会被重新抛出(re-raised)。当处理文件写入操作时，大部分时间你肯定不希望隐藏这些异常，所以这是可以的。而对于不希望重新抛出的异常，我们可以让__exit__方法简单的返回True来忽略语句块中发生的所有异常(大部分情况下这都不是明智之举)。

我们可以在异常发生时了解到更多详细的信息，完备的__exit__函数签名应该是这样的：

def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

这样__exit__函数就能够拿到关于异常的所有信息(异常类型，异常值以及异常追踪信息)，这些信息将帮助异常处理操作。

以下是一个示例，只负责抛出SyntaxErrors异常。 

class RaiseOnlyIfSyntaxError:
 
    def __enter__(self):
        pass
 
    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
        return SyntaxError != exc_type

4. 谈一些关于上下文库(contextlib)的内容

contextlib是一个Python模块，作用是提供更易用的上下文管理器。

contextlib.closing

假设我们有一个创建数据库函数，它将返回一个数据库对象，并且在使用完之后关闭相关资源(数据库连接会话等)

我们可以像以往那样处理或是通过上下文管理器：

with contextlib.closing(CreateDatabases()) as database:
    database.query()

contextlib.closing方法将在语句块结束后调用数据库的关闭方法。

contextlib.contextmanager

对于Python高级玩家来说，任何能够被yield关键词分割成两部分的函数，都能够通过装饰器装饰的上下文管理器来实现。任何在yield之前的内容都可以看做在代码块执行前的操作，而任何yield之后的操作都可以放在exit函数中。

这里我举一个线程锁的例子：

锁机制保证两段代码在同时执行时不会互相干扰。例如我们有两块并行执行的代码同时写一个文件，那我们将得到一个混合两份输入的错误文件。但如果我们能有一个锁，任何想要写文件的代码都必须首先获得这个锁，那么事情就好办了。如果你想了解更多关于并发编程的内容，请参阅相关文献。

下面是线程安全写函数的例子：

import threading

lock = threading.RLock()

def safeWriteToFile(openedFile, content):
    lock.acquire()
    openedFile.write(content)
    lock.release()

接下来，让我们用上下文管理器来实现，回想之前关于yield和contextlib的分析：

import contextlib
import threading

lock = threading.RLock()

def safeWriteToFile(openedFile, content):
    lock.acquire()
    openedFile.write(content)
    lock.release()

@contextlib.contextmanager
def loudLock():
    print('Locking')
    with lock:
        yield
    print("Releasing")

with loudLock():
    print("Lock is locked: %s") 
    print("Doing something that needs locking")

如果你想保证异常安全，请对yield使用try语句。幸运的是threading。lock已经是一个上下文管理器了，所以我们只需要简单地：

因为threading.lock在异常发生时会通过__exit__函数返回False，这将在yield被调用是被重新抛出。这种情况下锁将被释放，但对于“print ‘Releasing’”的调用则不会被执行，除非我们重写try-finally。

如果你希望在上下文管理器中使用“as”关键字，那么就用yield返回你需要的值，它将通过as关键字赋值给新的变量。

"""Utilities for with-statement contexts.  See PEP 343."""

import sys
from collections import deque
from functools import wraps

__all__ = ["contextmanager", "closing", "ContextDecorator", "ExitStack",
           "redirect_stdout", "redirect_stderr", "suppress"]


class ContextDecorator(object):
    "A base class or mixin that enables context managers to work as decorators."

    def _recreate_cm(self):
        """Return a recreated instance of self.

        Allows an otherwise one-shot context manager like
        _GeneratorContextManager to support use as
        a decorator via implicit recreation.

        This is a private interface just for _GeneratorContextManager.
        See issue #11647 for details.
        """
        return self

    def __call__(self, func):
        @wraps(func)
        def inner(*args, **kwds):
            with self._recreate_cm():
                return func(*args, **kwds)
        return inner


class _GeneratorContextManager(ContextDecorator):
    """Helper for @contextmanager decorator."""

    def __init__(self, func, args, kwds):
        self.gen = func(*args, **kwds)
        self.func, self.args, self.kwds = func, args, kwds
        # Issue 19330: ensure context manager instances have good docstrings
        doc = getattr(func, "__doc__", None)
        if doc is None:
            doc = type(self).__doc__
        self.__doc__ = doc
        # Unfortunately, this still doesn't provide good help output when
        # inspecting the created context manager instances, since pydoc
        # currently bypasses the instance docstring and shows the docstring
        # for the class instead.
        # See http://bugs.python.org/issue19404 for more details.

    def _recreate_cm(self):
        # _GCM instances are one-shot context managers, so the
        # CM must be recreated each time a decorated function is
        # called
        return self.__class__(self.func, self.args, self.kwds)

    def __enter__(self):
        try:
            return next(self.gen)
        except StopIteration:
            raise RuntimeError("generator didn't yield") from None

    def __exit__(self, type, value, traceback):
        if type is None:
            try:
                next(self.gen)
            except StopIteration:
                return
            else:
                raise RuntimeError("generator didn't stop")
        else:
            if value is None:
                # Need to force instantiation so we can reliably
                # tell if we get the same exception back
                value = type()
            try:
                self.gen.throw(type, value, traceback)
                raise RuntimeError("generator didn't stop after throw()")
            except StopIteration as exc:
                # Suppress StopIteration *unless* it's the same exception that
                # was passed to throw().  This prevents a StopIteration
                # raised inside the "with" statement from being suppressed.
                return exc is not value
            except RuntimeError as exc:
                # Likewise, avoid suppressing if a StopIteration exception
                # was passed to throw() and later wrapped into a RuntimeError
                # (see PEP 479).
                if exc.__cause__ is value:
                    return False
                raise
            except:
                # only re-raise if it's *not* the exception that was
                # passed to throw(), because __exit__() must not raise
                # an exception unless __exit__() itself failed.  But throw()
                # has to raise the exception to signal propagation, so this
                # fixes the impedance mismatch between the throw() protocol
                # and the __exit__() protocol.
                #
                if sys.exc_info()[1] is not value:
                    raise


def contextmanager(func):
    """@contextmanager decorator.

    Typical usage:

        @contextmanager
        def some_generator(<arguments>):
            <setup>
            try:
                yield <value>
            finally:
                <cleanup>

    This makes this:

        with some_generator(<arguments>) as <variable>:
            <body>

    equivalent to this:

        <setup>
        try:
            <variable> = <value>
            <body>
        finally:
            <cleanup>

    """
    @wraps(func)
    def helper(*args, **kwds):
        return _GeneratorContextManager(func, args, kwds)
    return helper


class closing(object):
    """Context to automatically close something at the end of a block.

    Code like this:

        with closing(<module>.open(<arguments>)) as f:
            <block>

    is equivalent to this:

        f = <module>.open(<arguments>)
        try:
            <block>
        finally:
            f.close()

    """
    def __init__(self, thing):
        self.thing = thing
    def __enter__(self):
        return self.thing
    def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
        self.thing.close()


class _RedirectStream:

    _stream = None

    def __init__(self, new_target):
        self._new_target = new_target
        # We use a list of old targets to make this CM re-entrant
        self._old_targets = []

    def __enter__(self):
        self._old_targets.append(getattr(sys, self._stream))
        setattr(sys, self._stream, self._new_target)
        return self._new_target

    def __exit__(self, exctype, excinst, exctb):
        setattr(sys, self._stream, self._old_targets.pop())


class redirect_stdout(_RedirectStream):
    """Context manager for temporarily redirecting stdout to another file.

        # How to send help() to stderr
        with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
            help(dir)

        # How to write help() to a file
        with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
            with redirect_stdout(f):
                help(pow)
    """

    _stream = "stdout"


class redirect_stderr(_RedirectStream):
    """Context manager for temporarily redirecting stderr to another file."""

    _stream = "stderr"


class suppress:
    """Context manager to suppress specified exceptions

    After the exception is suppressed, execution proceeds with the next
    statement following the with statement.

         with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
             os.remove(somefile)
         # Execution still resumes here if the file was already removed
    """

    def __init__(self, *exceptions):
        self._exceptions = exceptions

    def __enter__(self):
        pass

    def __exit__(self, exctype, excinst, exctb):
        # Unlike isinstance and issubclass, CPython exception handling
        # currently only looks at the concrete type hierarchy (ignoring
        # the instance and subclass checking hooks). While Guido considers
        # that a bug rather than a feature, it's a fairly hard one to fix
        # due to various internal implementation details. suppress provides
        # the simpler issubclass based semantics, rather than trying to
        # exactly reproduce the limitations of the CPython interpreter.
        #
        # See http://bugs.python.org/issue12029 for more details
        return exctype is not None and issubclass(exctype, self._exceptions)


# Inspired by discussions on http://bugs.python.org/issue13585
class ExitStack(object):
    """Context manager for dynamic management of a stack of exit callbacks

    For example:

        with ExitStack() as stack:
            files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
            # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
            # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
            # in the list raise an exception

    """
    def __init__(self):
        self._exit_callbacks = deque()

    def pop_all(self):
        """Preserve the context stack by transferring it to a new instance"""
        new_stack = type(self)()
        new_stack._exit_callbacks = self._exit_callbacks
        self._exit_callbacks = deque()
        return new_stack

    def _push_cm_exit(self, cm, cm_exit):
        """Helper to correctly register callbacks to __exit__ methods"""
        def _exit_wrapper(*exc_details):
            return cm_exit(cm, *exc_details)
        _exit_wrapper.__self__ = cm
        self.push(_exit_wrapper)

    def push(self, exit):
        """Registers a callback with the standard __exit__ method signature

        Can suppress exceptions the same way __exit__ methods can.

        Also accepts any object with an __exit__ method (registering a call
        to the method instead of the object itself)
        """
        # We use an unbound method rather than a bound method to follow
        # the standard lookup behaviour for special methods
        _cb_type = type(exit)
        try:
            exit_method = _cb_type.__exit__
        except AttributeError:
            # Not a context manager, so assume its a callable
            self._exit_callbacks.append(exit)
        else:
            self._push_cm_exit(exit, exit_method)
        return exit # Allow use as a decorator

    def callback(self, callback, *args, **kwds):
        """Registers an arbitrary callback and arguments.

        Cannot suppress exceptions.
        """
        def _exit_wrapper(exc_type, exc, tb):
            callback(*args, **kwds)
        # We changed the signature, so using @wraps is not appropriate, but
        # setting __wrapped__ may still help with introspection
        _exit_wrapper.__wrapped__ = callback
        self.push(_exit_wrapper)
        return callback # Allow use as a decorator

    def enter_context(self, cm):
        """Enters the supplied context manager

        If successful, also pushes its __exit__ method as a callback and
        returns the result of the __enter__ method.
        """
        # We look up the special methods on the type to match the with statement
        _cm_type = type(cm)
        _exit = _cm_type.__exit__
        result = _cm_type.__enter__(cm)
        self._push_cm_exit(cm, _exit)
        return result

    def close(self):
        """Immediately unwind the context stack"""
        self.__exit__(None, None, None)

    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
        received_exc = exc_details[0] is not None

        # We manipulate the exception state so it behaves as though
        # we were actually nesting multiple with statements
        frame_exc = sys.exc_info()[1]
        def _fix_exception_context(new_exc, old_exc):
            # Context may not be correct, so find the end of the chain
            while 1:
                exc_context = new_exc.__context__
                if exc_context is old_exc:
                    # Context is already set correctly (see issue 20317)
                    return
                if exc_context is None or exc_context is frame_exc:
                    break
                new_exc = exc_context
            # Change the end of the chain to point to the exception
            # we expect it to reference
            new_exc.__context__ = old_exc

        # Callbacks are invoked in LIFO order to match the behaviour of
        # nested context managers
        suppressed_exc = False
        pending_raise = False
        while self._exit_callbacks:
            cb = self._exit_callbacks.pop()
            try:
                if cb(*exc_details):
                    suppressed_exc = True
                    pending_raise = False
                    exc_details = (None, None, None)
            except:
                new_exc_details = sys.exc_info()
                # simulate the stack of exceptions by setting the context
                _fix_exception_context(new_exc_details[1], exc_details[1])
                pending_raise = True
                exc_details = new_exc_details
        if pending_raise:
            try:
                # bare "raise exc_details[1]" replaces our carefully
                # set-up context
                fixed_ctx = exc_details[1].__context__
                raise exc_details[1]
            except BaseException:
                exc_details[1].__context__ = fixed_ctx
                raise
        return received_exc and suppressed_exc

 参考博客： http://blog.jobbole.com/64175/